motivation and theories

Introduction:

Motivation is one of the most important factors affecting human behaviour and performance. This is the reason why managers attach great importance to motivation in organizational setting. Rensis Likert, has called motivation as “the core of management”. Effective directing of people leads the organization to effectiveness, both at organizational and individual levels.

Motivation and Its Definition:

The willingness to exert high level of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. Robert Dubin defines Motivation as “the complex forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization. Motivation is something that moves the person to action. and continues him in the course of action of action already initiated”

Nature of Motivation:

On the basis of the above description, the following characteristics of motivation can be identified

1.Motivation is a psychological concept. It is based on human needs

which generate within an individual. Needs are feelings influence the behaviour and activities of the individual. 2.Motivation is total, not piece-meal. A person cannot be motivated in parts. An employee is an indivisible unite and he needs are interrelated. He cannot be motivated by fulfilling some of his needs partly. 3.Motivation is a continuous process. It is not a time bound programme or a touch-and-go affair. Human needs are infinite. A soon as one need is satisfied new ones arise. 4.Motivation causes goal-directed behaviour. A person behaves in such a way that he can satisfy his goals or needs.

5.Motivation may be financial or non-financial. The form of motivation

depends upon the type of needs. Financial incentives include pay,

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3allowance, bonus and prerequisites. Non-financial incentives consist of recognition, praise, responsibility, participation in decision-making, challenging job, etc., 6.Motivation is a complex process. There is no universal theory or approach to motivation. Moreover, individuals differ in what motivates them. Therefore, a manager has to analyse and understand variety of needs and has to use variety of rewards to satisfy them. He should not expect overnight results.

Theories of Motivation:

A.Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory B.Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory C.McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y D.Theory Z E.Alderfer’s ERG Theory F.Vroom’s Expectancy Theory G.Porter-Lawler Model of Motivation

A.Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory:

There is a hierarchy of five needs – physiological, safety, social,

esteem, and self-actualization – and as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

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1.Physiological:

These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. Therefore, these are the most primary or basic needs and must be satisfied before all other needs. It includes the needs of air, water, food, sex, rest, clothing, shelter, etc.,

2.Safety or Security Needs:

Once Physiological needs are satisfied to be reasonable level, safety needs emerge and become dominant. These needs imply the need for self-preservation and economic independence. People want bodily safety, job security, provision for old age, insurance against risk etc.

3.Social Needs:

Man is a social animal. He therefore, wants association, belonging, friendship, love and affection. These are the need to seek affiliation and affection of one’s fellow beings. People form informal groups to seek meaningful associations companionship.

4.Self Esteem or Ego Needs:

These are concerned with awareness of self importance and recognition from others. Esteem needs consist of such things as self – confidence, self – respect, independence, power, prestige, achievement, praise and status.

5.Self – Actualization Needs:

This implies “the desire to become more and more of what one is, to become everything that on is capable of becoming”. It involves self fulfillment or achieving what one considers to be his mission in life.

B. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Frederick Herzberg and his associates conducted research wherein they interviewed 20 engineers and accountants from nine different companies in Pittsburg area of U.S.A. These executives were asked to recall specific incidents in their experience which made them feel either exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs. On

5the basis of their study, Herzberg concluded that there are some job conditions which operate primarily to dissatisfy employees while other job conditions operate primarily to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction. He called these factors hygiene factors and motivating factors respectively.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Job Dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors

Monitory in Nature Seeks Money, Avoids working work Interpersonal relations with peers Job Context Extrinsic in Nature Maintenance Maslow’s Two Lower end Needs Possibilities of Growth Job Content Intrinsic in Nature Motivational Maslow’s Three Higher end Needs

Neutral

Job Satisfaction

Motivational Factors

Non – Monitory in Nature Seeks Responsibilities, and likes to

1.Hygiene Factor:

These factors provide no motivation to employees but the absence of these factors serves as dissatisfies. Many of these factors are traditionally perceived by management as motivators but these are really more potent as dissatisfies. These are called ‘Hygiene Factors’ because they support the mental health of employees. Some of the Hygiene Factors are,  Wages, salary and other types of employee benefits.  Company policies and administrative rules that govern the working environment.  Interpersonal relation with peers, supervisors and subordinates. Cordial relation will prevent frustration and dissatisfaction.  Working conditions and job security. The job security may be in the form of tenure or it could be supported by a strong union.

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2.Motivational Factor:

These factors help to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction. They are also known as satisfiers. These are related with the job content. Their absence or decrease will affect the level of job satisfaction. These factors are achievement, advancement, work itself, possibility of growth and responsibility. Some of these Motivational Factor’s are:  The Job itself  Recognition  Achievement  Responsibility  Growth and advancement.

C. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:

Prof. Douglas McGregor has introduced two theories in his famous book, “The Human side of Enterprise.” They are called ‘X’ theory and ‘Y’ theory.

1.Theory X:

The theory is based on ‘papa knows best.’ In other words, a manager has thorough knowledge and excludes workers from decisionmaking process. A manager has authority or power to take decisions. The workers should follow whatever decisions are taken by the manager.

Assumptions of theory  Workers have an aversion to work inherently.

 Workers may find a way to postpone the work completion in laziness.  Workers may do the job half-heartedly.  Fear of punishment can motivate the workers into action.  The worker may know the hazards of non-performance of a work.

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 No worker is ready to accept any responsibility.

2.Theory Y:

Y-theory is just opposite to X-theory. So, X-theory is considered as traditional theory and Y-theory is considered as modern theory. Y-theory emphasis the importance of workers in the accomplishment of enterprise objectives.

Assumptions of theory

 The average human being has the tendency to work. A job is as natural just like a play.  Once the worker understands the purpose of job, he may extend his co-operation for job completion.  Worker can put in his best efforts for the accomplishment of enterprise objectives early.  Worker has self-direction, self-motivation, self-discipline and selfcontrol.  If right motivation scheme is prepared by the management, the worker is ready to accept extra responsibility.  The existing worker has competence to work and can take right decision.

F.Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:

Vroom’s expectancy theory has its roots in the cognitive concepts in the choice behaviour utility concepts of classical economic theory. According to Vroom, people will be motivated to do things to achieve some goals to the extent that they expect that certain action on their part will help them to achieve the goal. Vroom’s model is built around the concepts of value, expectancy, and force; its basic assumption is that the choice made by a person among alternative courses of action is lawfully related to psychological events occurring contemporaneously with the behaviour. Vroom’s concept of force is basically equivalent to motivation and may be shown to be the algebraic sum of products of valences multiplied by expectations. Thus Motivation (force) = ∑ Valence X Expectancy

1.Valence:

According to Vroom, valence means the strength of an individual’s preference to a particular outcome. Other terms equivalent to

10valence used in various theories of motivation are incentive, attitude, and expected utility.

Expectance Motivation (force)

First – level Outcomes

Instrumentalities

Second – level Outcomes Outcome 1a Outcome 1 Outcome 1b Outcome 2a Outcome 2 Outcome 2b

Vroom’s expectancy theory 2.Instrumentality:

Another major input into the valence is the instrumentality of the first – level outcome in obtaining a derived second – level outcome. Hunt and Hill have exemplified it by promotion motive. The superior performance (first – level outcome) is being instrumental in obtaining promotion (second – level outcome).

3.Expectancy:

Another factor in determining the motivation is expectancy, that is, the probability that a particular action will lead to the out come. Expectancy is different from instrumentality input into valence. Expectancy differs from instrumentality in that it relates efforts to first – level outcomes whereas instrumentality relates first – and second – level outcomes to each other.

G.Porter-Lawler Model of Motivation:

Porter-Lawler have derived a substantially more complete model of motivation and have applied it in their study primarily of managers. They propose a multivariate model to explain the complex relationship that exists between job attitudes and job performance. Their

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model encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions made about the positive relationship between satisfaction and performance.

Value of reward Ability and traits

Perceived equitable rewards Intrinsic rewards Satis faction

Effort

Performance accomplishment

Perceived effort – reward Probability

Role perception

Extrinsic rewards

Porter – Lawler Motivation Model

1.Effort:

Effort refers to the amount of energy exerted by an employee on a given task. Perceived reward probability refers to the individual’s perception of the probability that differential rewards depend upon differential amounts of effort. These two factors – value of reward and perception of effort – reward probability – determine the amount of effort that the employee will put in.

2.Performance:

Effort leads to performance but both these may not be equal; rather, performance is determined by the amount f effort and the ability and role perception of the individual. Thus, if an individual has little ability and/or inaccurate role perception, his performance may be ineffective in spite of his putting in great efforts.

3.Rewards:

Performance is seen as leading to intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards. However, the intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance.

4.Satisfaction:

Satisfaction is derived from the extent to which actual rewards fall short, meet or exceed the individual’s perceived level of equitable rewards. If actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the individual will feel satisfied; if these are less than equitable rewards , he will be dissatisfied.

Conclusion:

Various theories of Motivation, discussed above, have various applications in management practices. In applying motivation theories, managers should take into consideration how an individual reacts to his work which is a function of fit among;

1.individual’s personality characteristics, need patterns, values, and

ability;

2.characteristics of job such as nature of challenge it

offers, the

autonomy in performing the job, and the use of skills in performing the job. Thus, in applying motivation theories at workplace, both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of the job must be considered. Intrinsic factors are directly related to the contents of a job while extrinsic factors are related to the context or environment in which the job is performed. Thus, motivation theories help in designing reward system, empowering employees, improving quality of work life, and work design